Polis: let us understand the word and concept behind it.

Polis :Ancient Greek: pólis, plural poleis, literally means city in Greek. It could also mean citizenship and body of citizens. In modern historiography "polis" is normally used to indicate the ancient Greek city-states, like Classical Athens and its contemporaries, so polis is often translated as "city-state."

The word originates from the ancient Greek city-states, which developed during the Archaic period, the ancestor of city, state and citizenship, and persisted (though with decreasing influence) well into Roman times, when the equivalent Latin word was civitas, also meaning 'citizenhood', while municipium applied to a non-sovereign local entity. The term city-state which originated in English (alongside the German Stadtstaat) does not fully translate the Greek term. The poleis were not like other primordial ancient city-states like Tyre or Sidon, which were ruled by a king or a small oligarchy, but rather a political entity ruled by its body of citizens. The traditional view of archaeologists, that the appearance of urbanization at excavation sites could be read as a sufficient index for the development of a polis was criticised by François Polignac in 1984^[1] and has not been taken for granted in recent decades: the polis of Sparta for example was established in a network of villages.The term polis which in archaic Greece meant city, changed with the development of the governance center in the city to indicate state (which included its surrounding villages), and finally with the emergence of a citizenship notion between the land owners it came to describe the entire body of citizens. The ancient Greeks didn't refer to Athens, Sparta, Thebes and other poleis as such; they rather spoke of the Athenians, Lacedaemonians, Thebans and so on. The body of citizens came to be the most important meaning of the term polis in ancient Greece.

The Ancient Greek term which specifically meant the totality of urban buildings and spaces was pronounced ásty. It is archaic and classical polis.

Basic and indicating elements of a polis are:

• Self-governance: autonomy and independence (city-state)
• Agora: the social hub and financial marketplace, on and a round a centrally located large open space
• Acropolis: the citadel, inside which a temple had replaced the erstwhile Mycenaean anáktoron (palace) or mégaron (hall)
• Planned city: Greek urban planning and architecture, public, religious, and private buildings were built based well laidout plans.
• Poliouchos: Temples, altars and sacred precincts: one or more are dedicated to the poliouchos, the patron deity of the city.
• Festivals: each polis kept its own particular festivals and customs (Political religion, as opposed to the individualized religion of the later antiquity).
• Priests and priestesses: although often drawn from certain families by tradition, did not form a separate collegiality or class: they were ordinary citizens who, on certain occasions, were called to perform certain functions.
• Gymnasia
• Theatres
• Walls: used for protection from invaders
• Coins: minted by the city, and bearing its symbols
• Colonies: being founded by the oikistes of the metropolis
• Political life: it revolved around the sovereign Ekklesia (the assembly of all adult male citizens for deliberation and voting), the standing boule and other civic or judicial councils, the archons and other officials or magistrates elected either by vote or by lot, clubs, etc., and sometimes punctuated by stasis (civil strife between parties, factions or socioeconomic classes, e.g. aristocrats, oligarchs, democrats, tyrants, the wealthy, the poor, large or small landowners, etc.)
• Publication of state functions: laws, decrees and major fiscal accounts were published, and criminal and civil trials were also held in public
• Synoecism, conurbation: Absorption of nearby villages and countryside, and the incorporation of their tribes into the substructure of the polis. Many of a polis' citizens would have lived in the suburbs or countryside. The Greeks did not regard the polis as a territorial grouping so much as a religious and political association: while the polis would control territory and colonies beyond the city itself, the polis would not simply consist of a geographical area. Most cities were composed of several tribes or phylai, which were in turn composed of phratries (common-ancestry lineages), and finally génea (extended families)
• Social classes and citizenship: Dwellers in the polis were generally divided into four types of inhabitants, with status typically determined by birth:
• Citizens with full legal and political rights, i.e. adult free men born legitimately of citizen parents. They had the right to vote, be elected into office, bear arms, and the obligation to serve when at war.
• Citizens without formal political rights, but full legal rights: the citizens' female relatives and underage children, whose political rights and interests were represented, and property held in trust, by their adult male relatives.
• Citizens of other poleis who chose to reside elsewhere (the metics, métoikoi, literally "transdwellers"): though free-born and possessing full rights in their place of origin, had full legal rights but no political rights in their place of residence. Metics could not vote, could not be elected to office, could not bear arms and could not serve in war. They otherwise had full personal and property rights, albeit subject to taxation.
• Slaves: chattel in full possession of their owner, and with no privileges other what their owner would grant (or revoke) at will.

Hellenistic and Roman

During the Hellenistic period, which marks the decline of the classical polis, the following cities remained independent: Sparta until 195 BC after the War against Nabis. Achaean League is the last example of original Greek city-state federations (dissolved after the Battle of Corinth (146 BC)). The Cretan city-states continue to be independent (except Itanus and Arsinoe, which lay under Ptolemaic influence) until the conquest of Crete in 69 BC by Rome. The cities of Magna Graecia, with the notable examples of Syracuse and Tarentum, were conquered by Rome in late 3rd century BC. There are also some cities with recurring independence like Samos, Priene, Miletus^[2] and Athens. A remarkable example of a city-state which flourished during this era is Rhodes through its merchant navy,^[3] until 43 BC and the Roman conquest.

Macedonian title politarch: The Hellenistic colonies and cities of the era retain some basic characteristics of a polis, except: the status of independence (city-state) and the political life. There is a self-governance (like the new Macedonian title politarch) but under a ruler and king. The political life of the classical era is now transformed to an individualized religious and philosophical view of life (see Hellenistic philosophy and religion) The demographic decline forced the cities to abolish the status of metic and bestow citizenship; In 228 BC Miletus enfranchised over 1000 Cretans. (Milet, I, 3, 33-8.) Dyme sold its citizenship for one talent, payable in two instalments. The foreign residents in a city are now called paroikoi. In an age, when most of the establishments in Asia are kingdoms, an interesting example of a Hellenistic cities federation is the Chrysaorian League in Caria.

Greek poleis turns to become Panhellenion: here onwards P is replaced with H and Polis becomes Hellenic city.

During the Roman era, some cities were granted the status of a polis, free city,^[4] self-governed under the Roman Empire. The last institution commemorating the old Greek poleis was the Panhellenion established by Hadrian.

Derivatives of polis

Derivatives of polis are common in many modern European languages. This is indicative of the influence of the polis-centred Hellenic world view. Derivative words in English include policy, polity, police and politics. In Greek, words deriving from polis include politēs and politismos, whose exact equivalents in Latin, Romance and other European languages, respectively civis (citizen), civilisatio (civilization) etc. are similarly derived.

A number of words end in the word "-polis". Most refer to a special kind of city and/or state. Some examples are:

• Astropolis — star-scaled city or industrial area; complex space station; a European star-related festival.
• Cosmopolis — a large urban centre with a population of many different cultural backgrounds; a novel written by Don DeLillo.
• Ecumenopolis — a city that covers an entire planet, usually seen in science fiction
• Megalopolis, built by merging several cities and their suburbs.
• Metropolis can refer to the mother city of a colony, the see of a metropolitan archbishop or a Metropolitan area — a major urban population centre.
• Necropolis 'city of the dead' — a graveyard.
• Technopolis — city with high-tech industry; room full of computers; the Internet.

Other refers to part of a city or a group of cities, such as:

• Acropolis, 'high city' — upper part of a polis, often citadel and/or site of major temple(s).
• Decapolis, a group of ten cities
• Dodecapolis, a group of twelve cities
• Pentapolis, a group of five cities
• Tripolis, a group of three cities, retained in the names of a Tripoli in Libya, in Greece and a namesake in Lebanon

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Names of cities in various parts of the world with polis as prefix or suffix.

Polis, Cyprus

Located on the north-west coast of Cyprus is the town of Polis or Polis Chrysochous situated within the Paphos District and on the edge of the Akamas peninsula. During the Cypro-Classical period, Polis became one of the most important ancient Cypriot city-kingdoms on the island, with important commercial relations with the eastern Aegean Islands, Attica and Corinth. The town is also well known due to its mythological history, including the site of the "Baths of Aphrodite".

Other cities

The names of several other towns and cities in Europe and the Middle East have contained the suffix "-polis" since antiquity; or currently feature modernized spellings, such as "-pol". Notable examples include:

• Acropolis ("high city"), Athens, Greece (this is the most well-known example of acropolis; in fact an acropolis area was part of almost every ancient Greek polis and it was more like a function-part of an ancient polis (like e.g. agora, walls, etc.) than a locally named area)
• Adrianopolis or Adrianople ("Hadrian's city"), present-day Edirne, Turkey
• Alexandroupolis ("Alexander's city"), Greece
• Alexandropol ("Alexandra's city"), currently Gyumri, Armenia
• Antipolis ("the city across"), the former name for Antibes, France
• Constantinopolis or Constantinople ("Constantine's city"), the former name for Istanbul, Turkey
• Heliopolis ("Sun city"), Egypt
• Heracleopolis ("Hercules' city"), Egypt
• Hermopolis ("Hermes' city"), several cities in Egypt and on Siros Island
• Hierakonpolis ("Hawk city"), Egypt
• Hieropolis ("Sacred city"), several cities in the Hellenistic world, in particular Hierapolis in south-western Turkey
• Megalopolis ("Great city"), Greece
• Neapolis ("New city"), several including the modern cities of Nablus and Naples (Italian: Napoli), and the adjective Neapolitan
• Nicopolis ("Victory city"), Emmaus in Israel
• Lithopolis ("Stone city"), Latin name for Kamnik, Slovenia
• Persepolis ("city of the Persians"), Iran
• Sevastopol ("Venerable city"), Crimea, Ukraine
• Seuthopolis ("Seuthes' city"), Bulgaria
• Simferopol ("city of common good"), Crimea, Ukraine
• Sozopol ("Salvaged city"), Bulgaria
• Tiraspol ("Tiras' city"), Moldova

The names of other cities were also given the suffix "-polis" after antiquity, either referring to ancient names or simply unrelated:

• Anápolis, Brazil
• Annapolis, Maryland, United States of America
• Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia, Canada
• Biopolis, Singapore
• Cambysopolis, Turkey
• Christianopel, Sweden
• Copperopolis, California, United States of America
• Coraopolis, Pennsylvania, United States of America
• Florianópolis, Brazil
• Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
• Kannapolis, North Carolina, United States of America
• Lithopolis, Ohio, United States of America
• Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
• Opolis, Kansas, United States of America
• Petrópolis, Brazil
• Sebastopol, California, United States of America
• Sophia-Antipolis, France
• Teutopolis, Illinois, United States of America
• Uniopolis, Ohio, United States of America
• Thermopolis, Wyoming, United States of America
• Borrazópolis, Parana, Brazil

Some cities have also been given nicknames ending with the suffix "-polis", usually referring to their characteristics:

• Swansea, United Kingdom, once dubbed Copperopolis due to its vast production of the metal.
• Manchester. United Kingdom, nicknamed Cottonopolis during the 19th century due to its status as a major industrial centre for cotton spinning.

Notes

1.                              ^ Polignac, La naissance de la cité grecque (Paris 1984). An attempt to dissociate urbanization from state formation was undertaken by I. Morris, "The early polis as city and state" in J. Rich and A. Wallace-Hadrill, eds., City and Country in the Ancient World (London 1991) pp 27-40.

2.                              ^ City government in Hellenistic and Roman Asia minor By Sviatoslav Dmitriev Page 68 ISBN 0195170423 (2005)

3.                              ^ Encyclopedia of ancient Greece By Nigel Guy Wilson Page 627 ISBN 978-0-415-97334-2 (2006)

4.                              ^ Coinage and Identity in the Roman Provinces By Christopher Howgego, Volhker Heuchert, Andrew Burnett Page 158 ISBN 0-19-923784-0 (2007)

Further reading

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Hansen, Mogens Herman. Polis: An Introduction to the Ancient Greek City-State. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-19-920849-2; paperback, ISBN 0-19-920850-6).
• Mogens Herman Hansen (ed), The Ancient Greek City-State. Symposium on the occasion of the 250th anniversary of The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, July, 1-4 1992. [Acts of the Copenhagen Polis Centre vol. 1], Copenhagen 1993 (Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filosofiske Meddelelser 67)
• Mogens Herman Hansen (ed), Sources for The Ancient Greek City-State. Symposium August, 24-27 1994. Acts of the Copenhagen Polis Centre vol. 2, Copenhagen 1995 (Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk- filosofiske Meddelelser 72)
• Mogens Herman Hansen (ed), Introduction to an Inventory of Poleis. Symosium August, 23-26 1995. Acts of the Copenhagen Polis Centre vol. 3, Copenhagen 1996 (Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk- filosofiske Meddelelser 74)
• Mogens Herman Hansen, The Polis as an Urban Centre and as a Political Community. Symposium August, 29-31 1996. Acts of the Copenhagen Polis Centre vol. 4, Copenhagen 1997 (Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk- filosofiske Meddelelser 75)
• Mogens Herman Hansen (ed), Polis and City-State. An Ancient Concept and its Modern Equivalent. Symposium, January 9, 1998. Acts of the Copenhagen Polis Centre vol. 5, Copenhagen 1998 (Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filosofiske Meddelelser 76)
• Mogens Herman Hansen (ed), The imaginary polis. Symposium, January 7–10, 2004. Acts of the Copenhagen Polis Centre vol. 7, Copenhagen 2005 (Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filosofiske Meddelelser 91)
• Mogens Herman Hansen & Kurt Raaflaub (edd), Studies in the Ancient Greek Polis. Papers from the Copenhagen Polis Centre 2, Stuttgart: Steiner 1995 (Historia Einzelschriften 95)
• Mogens Herman Hansen & Kurt Raaflaub (edd), More Studies in the Ancient Greek Polis. Papers from the Copenhagen Polis Centre 3, Stuttgart: Steiner 1996 (Historia Einzelschriften 108)
• The Copenhagen Polis Center
• Berent M. Greece: The Stateless Polis (11-4 centuries B.C.). In Grinin L. E. et al. (eds.) The Early State, Its Alternatives and Analogues (pp. 364–387). Volgograd, Uchitel, 2004 The early State, Its Alternatives and Analogues
• Vliet, E. van der Polis. The Problem of Statehood. Social Evolution & History 4(2), September 2005 (pp. 120–150) Polis. The Problem of Statehood

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£Á£ÀÄ E°è ªÀļÀªÀ½î JA§ ºÉ¸ÀgÀÄ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀgÀºÀ½î JA§°èAzÀ §A¢zÉ JAzÀÄ w½AiÀÄÄvÉÛãÉ. D ªÀļÀªÀ½î ¥ÀlÖtzÀ ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀ£ÀÄß ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀgÉAzÀÄ PÀgÉ¢zÉÝÃ£É ºÁUÀÆ CªÀgÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÉÄAzÀÄ PÀgÉ¢zÉÝãÉ. EzÀÄ EAzÀÄ PÀAqÀÄ §gÀĪÀ ªÀiÁ¼À« ¨sÁµÉUÉ ªÉÄÃ®Ä £ÉÆÃlPÉÌ ºÉƮĪÀÅ¢®è. DzÀgÉ CzÀgÀ CAvÀgÁ¼ÀPÉÌ E½zÀÄ £ÉÆÃrzÁUÀ ªÀiÁ¼À«AiÀÄÄ §ºÀÄ¥Á®Ä DAiÀÄðPÀgÀtUÉÆAqÀ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀiÁVgÀĪÀÅzÀÄ PÀAqÀħgÀÄvÀÛzÉ. £Á£ÀÄ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀgÀ ¨sÁµÉ EvÀgÉ PÀ£ÁðlPÀgÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄAvÉ PÀ£ÀßqÀ JAzÀÄPÉÆAqÀÄ £À£Àß ¸ÀA±ÉÆÃzsÀ£É ªÀiÁqÀÄwÛzÉÝ DzÀgÉ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀgÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄÄ ¸ÁªÀiÁ£Àå PÀ£ÀßrUÀjUÉ ¤®ÄPÀzÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀiÁVzÉ ºÁUÀÆ PÀ£ÀßqÀªÀÅ ¸ÀĪÉÄjAiÀÄ£ÀßgÀ ¥ÀzÀUÀ¼À£ÀÄß AiÀÄvÁªÀvÁÛV G½¹PÉƼÀîzÉ C®à-¸Àé®à §zÀ¯ÁªÀuÉ ªÀiÁrPÉÆAqÀÄ §¼À¸ÀÄwÛzÉ, PÉ®ªÀÅ ¥ÀzÀUÀ¼À CxÀðUÀ¼À §zÀ¯ÁªÀuÉ ªÀiÁrPÉÆArzÉ, ªÀÄvÉÛ PÉ®ªÀÅ ¥ÀzÀUÀ¼À gÀÆ¥À §zÀ¯ÁªÀuÉ ªÀiÁrPÉÆArzÉ. PÉ®ªÀÅ ¥ÀzÀUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÀÄÆ®vÀ£ÀªÀ£ÀÄß G½¹PÉÆArzÀÝgÀÆ CªÀÅUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ªÁPÀåUÀ¼À°è §¼À¸ÀĪÁUÀ CªÀÅUÀ¼ÉÆA¢UÉ §¼À¸À®àqÀĪÀ ¥ÀzÀUÀ¼ÀÄ ¸ÀĪÉÄjAiÀÄ£ï ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ°ègÀĪÀ ¥ÀzÀUÀ¼ÁVgÀzÉ DAiÀÄð¥ÀzÀUÀ¼ÁVgÀÄvÀÛªÉ ºÁUÁV £Á£ÀÄ E°è ¥ÁæaãÀ PÀ£ÀßqÀzÀ ¥ÀzÀUÀ¼À£ÀÄß G½¹ PÉÆArgÀĪÀ ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÉÄAzÀÄ PÀgÉ¢zÉÝÃ£É ºÁUÀÆ CzÀÄ PÀ£ÀßqÀPÉÌ ºÀwÛgÀªÁzÀ DzÀgÉ PÀ£ÀßqÀªÀ®èzÀ MAzÀÄ ¥ÀæªÀÄÄR ¨sÁµÉAiÉÄAzÀÄ UÀÄgÀÄw¸ÀÄvÉÛãÉ. ªÀļÀªÀ½îAiÀÄ J¯Áè eÁw-d£ÁAUÀUÀ¼À d£ÀgÀÄ MAzÉà jÃwAiÀÄ°è MAzÉà ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß ªÀiÁvÀ£ÁqÀÄvÁÛgÉ JAzÀÄ ¸ÁªÀiÁ£ÀåjUÉ PÀAqÀħAzÀgÀÆ ¨sÁµÁ±Á¸ÀÛçzÀ «eÁÕ¤UÀ¼ÀÄ ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀ ¨sÁµÉUÀÆ ¨ÉÃgÉ eÁw-d£ÁAUÀzÀªÀgÀ G¥À¨sÁµÉUÀÆ ªÀåvÁå¸À«gÀĪÀÅzÀ£ÀÄß JwÛ vÉÆÃj¸ÀÄvÁÛgÉ.

F PɼÀUÉ ¸ÀĪÉÄjAiÀÄ£ï ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ°è ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ°è EgÀĪÀ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ PÀ£ÀßqÀzÀ°è CxÀªÁ ¨ÉÃgÉ ¨sÁµÉUÀ¼À°è PÀAqÀħgÀzÀ PÉ®ªÀÅ ¥ÀzÀUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ªÀÄvÀÄÛ CªÀÅUÀ¼À «ªÀgÀuÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß ¤ÃrgÀÄvÉÛãÉ. EAVèõï£À°è EgÀĪÀ ¥ÀzÀUÀ¼ÀÄ ¸ÀĪÉÄjAiÀÄ£ï ¥ÀzÀUÀ¼ÀÄ ºÁUÀÆ CªÀÅUÀ¼À EAVèµï «ªÀgÀuÉUÀ¼ÀÄ.

Wr. JAzÀgÉ written as

Akk. Akkadian-CPÁÌrAiÀÄ£ï ¨sÁµÉ.

Henzer
 henzer [CHILD] wr. henzer "a low social class; small child; baby; (to be) babyish; weak" Akk. ašpaltu; la'û; lakû; šerru
ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ°è d£ÀgÀÄ aPÀ̪ÀÄPÀ̽UÉ, ¸ÀªÀiÁdzÀ ¸ÀÛgÀzÀ°è vÀªÀÄVAvÀ aPÀ̪ÀjUÉ ºÉAd(gï), ºÉAgÀhÄ JAzÀÄ ¸ÀA¨sÉÆâü¸ÀÄvÁÛgÉ, GzÁºÀgÀuÉUÉ: ºÉAgÀhÄ, ºÀnÖUÉ §gÉÝ J°èUÀÔ ºÉÆÃVzÉÝ?

ZA
za [BEAD] wr. za; za₂ "bead, gem" Akk. abnu gÀhÄUÀ, gÀhÄUÀ JAzÀgÉ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀgÀ°è ºÉƼÉAiÀÄĪÀ ªÀ¸ÀÄÛ, ªÀÄÄvÀÄÛ-gÀvÀß JAzÀÄ CxÀð.
za [CLOSE?] wr. za "to close?" §gÀhÄ/§gÀhiÁ JAzÀgÉ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀgÀ°è ºÀwÛgÀ ¨Á JAzÀÄ CxÀð.
 za [MAN] wr. za "man" Akk. amēlu K£ÀÔ/ K£ÀÓ? JAzÀgÉ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀgÀ°è K£ÀÄ ªÀÄ£ÀĵÀå£É? JAzÀÄ CxÀð.

ZA.E
zae [YOU] wr. za-e; ze₂ "you"  eÉÆÃ, eÉÆåÃ(gÉhÆÃ, gÉhÆåÃ) JAzÀgÉ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀzÀ°è ¤Ã£ÀÄ JAzÀÄ CxÀð.

ZA.E.EN.ZE₂.EN
menzen [YOU] wr. me-en-ze₂-en; za-e-me-en-ze₂-en; za-e-en-ze₂-en "you (plural)" F §UÉAiÀÄ §¼ÀPÉ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀzÀ°è FUÀ E jÃw EzÉ: eÉÆåÃ-JAeÁ-J£ï

ZA.E.ME.EN.ZE₂.EN
menzen [YOU] wr. me-en-ze₂-en; za-e-me-en-ze₂-en; za-e-en-ze₂-en "you (plural)" F ªÉÄð£ÀAvÉ EzÉ.

ZE₂
 zae [YOU] wr. za-e; ze₂ "you" eÉ, d, eÉÆ, ºÁUÀÄ eÉÆåà EªÉ®èªÀÇ ¤Ã£ÀÄ JA§ CxÀðªÀ£ÀÄß ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀzÀ°è ¤ÃqÀÄvÀÛªÉ.
 zi [CUT] wr. zi₂; zi; zi_x(|IGI@g|) "to cut, remove; to erase" Akk. baqāmu; barāšu; naţāpu; nasāhu f/fÃgï, JAzÀgÉ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀzÀ°è PÀvÀÛj¸ÀÄ, vÉUÉzÀĺÁPÀÄ, C¼ÀQ¹ºÁPÀÄ JAzÀÄ CxÀð.

¸ÀĪÉÄjAiÀÄ£ï ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ §UÉÎ ªÁå¥ÀPÀªÁzÀ CzsÀåAiÀÄ£ÀUÀ¼ÀÄ ¥À²ÑªÀÄ zÉñÀUÀ¼À «±Àé«zÁ央AiÀÄUÀ¼À°è  £ÀqÉ¢ªÉ. D ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄÄ ¸ÀĪÀiÁgÀÄ DgÀjAzÀ ºÀvÀÄÛ ¸Á«gÀ ªÀgÀĵÀUÀ¼À »AzÉAiÉÄ ¥ÀæZÀ°vÀªÁVzÀÝ §UÉÎ FUÁUÀ¯Éà ¸ÁQëPÀj¸À¯ÁVzÉ. ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄÄ ¸ÀĪÉÄjAiÀÄ£ï ¨sÁµÉUÉ ¤PÀlªÁVgÀĪÀÅzÀ£ÀÄß £ÉÆÃrzÀgÉ ¸ÀĪÉÄjAiÀÄ£ï d£ÀgÀÄ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀgÁzÀgÉÆà E®è ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀgÀÄ ¸ÀĪÉÄjAiÀÄ£ï d£ÀgÁzÀgÉÆà JA§ «ZÁgÀ §gÀÄvÀÛzÉ. F ¤nÖ£À°è £Á¤ÃUÀ ¸ÀA±ÉÆÃzsÀ£É ªÀiÁqÀÄwÛzÉÝÃ£É ºÁUÀÆ PÉ®ªÀÅ wAUÀ¼ÀÄUÀ¼À°è D §UÉÎ £Á£ÀÄ gÀa¸ÀÄwÛgÀĪÀ PÀÈwAiÀÄ£ÀÄß ¥ÀæPÀn¸ÀÄvÉÛãÉ. A Connection between Kannada and Sumerians JA§ ²¶ðPÉAiÀÄ CrAiÀÄ°è ¢ªÀAUÀvÀ ²æà Dgï. £ÀgÀ¹AºÁZÁgÀåAiÀÄgÀ History of Kannada Language JA§ ¥ÀĸÀÛPÀ¢AzÀ ¸ÀAUÀ滹zÀ ¥ÁoÀªÀ£ÀÄß F ªÀÄÄAzÉ ¤ÃrgÀÄvÉÛãÉ. ANNEXURE-1 £ÉÆÃrj.

£À£Àß F PÀÈwAiÀÄ°è PÀAqÀÄ §gÀĪÀ PÉ®ªÀÅ ¨sÁµÁ±Á¸ÀÛçzÀ «µÀAiÀÄUÀ¼À DzsÁgÀzÀ ªÉÄÃ¯É ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀ ¨sÁµÉUÉ zÁæ«qÀ ¨sÁµÉUÀ¼À°è PÀ£ÀßqÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄÄ vÀÄA¨Á ¤PÀlªÁVgÀĪÀÅzÀÄ PÀAqÀÄ §gÀÄvÀÛzÉ. FUÁV PÀ£ÀßqÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄÄ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀ ¨sÁµÉ ºÁUÀÆ ¸ÀĪÉÄjAiÀÄ£ï ¨sÁµÉAiÀĵÉÖ ºÀ¼ÉAiÀÄzÁVzÉ JAzÀÄ PÀAqÀħgÀÄvÀÛzÉ ºÁUÀÆ PÀ£ÀßqÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄÄ »AzÉ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ gÀÆ¥ÀzÀ°è ªÁå¥ÀPÀªÁV §¼ÀPÉAiÀÄ°èvÀÄÛ, FV£ÀAvÉ C£Àå ¨sÁ¶PÀgÀ ¥Àæ¨sÁªÀPÉÌ M¼ÀUÁVgÀ°®è, ¸ÀªÀÄAiÀÄ PÀ¼ÉzÀAvÉ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀ ¨sÁµÉ¬ÄAzÀ ¨ÉÃ¥ÀðlÖ PÀ£ÀßqÀ vÀ£ÀßvÀ£ÀªÀ£ÀÄß ¨É¼É¹PÉÆArvÀÄ.

E°èAiÀÄ vÀ£ÀPÀ PÀ£ÀßqÀzÀ ¥ÀArvÀgÀÄ ªÉÃzÀUÀ¼À°è, gÁªÀiÁAiÀÄtzÀ°è, ªÀĺÁ¨sÁgÀvÀzÀ°è, ºÁUÀÆ EvÀgÉà ¥ÀÄgÁtUÀ¼À°è PÀ£ÀßqÀzÀ EwºÁ¸À ºÀÄqÀÄPÁr C®è°è zÉÆgÀQzÀ C®à-¸Àé®à ªÀiÁ»wAiÉÆA¢UÉ ²¯Á±Á±À£ÀUÀ¼À CzsÀåAiÀÄ£À¢AzÀ zÉÆgÉvÀ PÉ®ªÀÅ ªÀiÁ»wUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¸ÉÃj¹, CªÀ£ÀÄß VæÃPï §gÀºÀUÁgÀgÀÄ ºÁUÀÆ E¤ßvÀgÉ PÉ®ªÀÅ «zÉùUÀgÀ §gÀªÀtÂUÉUÀ¼À°è ¸ÁQëÃPÀj¹ PÀ£ÀßqÀ ¸ÀĪÀiÁgÀÄ JgÀqÀÄ ¸Á«gÀ ªÀgÀĵÀUÀ¼ÀµÀÄÖ ºÀ¼ÉAiÀÄ ¨sÁµÉAiÉÄAzÀÄ ¸Á¢ü¹ PÀ£ÀßrUÀjUÉ G¥ÀPÁgÀ ªÀiÁrgÀÄvÁÛgÉ. £Á£ÀÄ EµÀÖPÉÌ vÀÈ¥ÀÛ£ÁUÀzÉ PÀ£ÀßqÀzÀ ªÀÄÆ®ªÀ£ÀÄß ±ÉÆâü¸ÀÄvÁÛ £ÀªÀÄä PÀ£ÀßqÀzÀ £ÀqÀÄªÉ G¹gÁqÀÄwÛgÀĪÀ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ PÀAqÀÄ ¥ÀļÀQvÀ£ÁVgÀÄvÉÛÃ£É ºÁUÀÆ ªÀiÁ¼ÀªÀ ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄÄ ¥ÁæaãÀ PÀ£ÀßqÀªÉAzÀÄ ¸ÁQëÃPÀj¸ÀÄvÉÛãÉ. EzÀjAzÀ ¥ÁæaãÀ PÀ£ÀßqÀªÀÅ ¸ÀĪÉÄjAiÀÄ£ï ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ ¸ÀªÀĪÁ¢ ºÁUÀÆ ¸ÀĪÉÄjAiÀÄ£ï ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄAvÉ ¸ÀĪÀiÁgÀÄ ºÀvÀÄÛ¸Á«gÀ ªÀgÀĵÀUÀ¼ÀµÀÄÖ ºÀ¼ÉAiÀÄ ¨sÁµÉ ºÁUÀÆ F ¨sÁgÀvÀzÉñÀzÀ vÀÄA¨É¯Áè ªÁå¥ÀPÀªÁV ºÀgÀrPÉÆArzÀÝ ¨sÁµÉ JAzÀÄ ºÉüÀ®Ä ºÀ¶ð¸ÀÄvÉÛãÉ.

     F J¯Áè PÁgÀtUÀ½AzÁV £Á£ÀÄ §gÉ¢gÀĪÀ E PÀÈwAiÀÄÄ ªÀĺÀvÀéªÀ£ÀÄß ¥ÀqÉAiÀÄÄvÀÛzÉ ºÁUÀÆ ªÀÄÄAzÉ §gÀĪÀ ºÀ®ªÁgÀÄ ¸ÀA±ÉÆÃzsÀ£ÉUÀ½UÉ zÁj vÉÆÃgÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

AN INTRODUCTION TO MALAVA LANGUAGE

AN INTRODUCTION TO MALAVA LANGUAGE

MALAVA LIVING SUMERIAN- VIDEO


Malava is living Sumerian language. Please see the adjoining video clip. It is an introduction to the subject. The philologists, linguists, Sumerian experts, Dravidian fans, and Kannada speakers would be very happy to know my discovery. Those who are interested to know more can contact me. Please read my PLease read my adjoining article; A Connection between Kannada Speakers and Sumerians

Research Programs of the Malava Philological Academy

Research Programs of the Malava Philological Academy

1. To conduct scientific researches about the ancient civilizations and to document the result of the researches and to publish the research works.
2. To conduct scientific researches about the various cultural aspects and to document the result of the researches and to publish the research works.
3. To conduct scientific researches about the philology, linguistics, and etymology and to document the result of the researches and to publish the research works.
4. To conduct scientific researches about social, economic, and political problems and to document the result of the researches and to publish the research works.
5. To conduct scientific researches about any other issues of significance and to document the result of the researches and to publish the research works.
6. To make available the research works of our Academy as well as other institutes, Universities, and other academies to the students, academicians, policy makers and statesmen for shaping the future of our society.

Derivation of the word holeya: Thoughts of Late Mr.Edgar Thurston in his book Castes and Tribes of Southern India

ºÉÆ®AiÀÄ JA§ ¥ÀzÀzÀ §UÉÎ ²æÃ.JqÀÎgï xÀgÀìl£ï CªÀgÀ «ZÁgÀ

E°è CªÀgÀ PÁ¸ïÖ÷ì JAqï mÉæöʨïì D¥sï ¸ÀzÀ£ïð EArAiÀiÁ (Late Mr.Edgar Thurston’s Castes and Tribes of Southern India) JA§ ¥ÀĸÀÛPÀ¢AzÀ DAiÀÄÝ PÉ®ªÀÅ ¨sÁUÀUÀ¼À£ÀÄß £Á£ÀÄ F PɼÀUÉ ¤ÃrgÀÄvÉÛãÉ. CªÀÅ vÀªÀÄUÉ «ªÀgÀªÁV ºÉÆ®AiÀÄ ¥ÀzÀzÀ ªÀÅåvÀàwÛ ºÁUÀÆ ºÉÆ®AiÀÄgÀ EwºÁ¸ÀzÀ §UÉÎ PÉ®ªÀÅ G¥ÀAiÀÄÄPÀÛ ªÀiÁ»wUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¤ÃqÀÄvÀÛªÉ.

1)    Derivation of the word holeya: ºÉƯÉAiÀÄ JA§ ¥ÀzÀzÀ ªÀÅåvÀàwÛ

ºÉÆ®zÀ MqÉAiÀÄ ºÉƯÉAiÀÄ: gÁdåzÀ MqÉAiÀÄ gÁd

“Holeyas are the field labourers, and former agrestic serfs of South Canara, Pulayan being the Malayalam and Paraiyan the Tamil form of the same word. The name is derived by Brahmins from hole, pollution, and by others from hola, land or soil, in recognition of the fact that, as in the case of the Paraiyan, there are coustoms remaining which seem to indicate that the Holeyas were once masters of the land; but, whatever the derivation may be, it is no doubt the same as that of Paraiyan and Pulayan. The Holeyas are divided into many sub-divisions, but the most important are Mari, Mera, and Mundala or Bakuda. . .”

“ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀÄ ºÉÆ®zÀ°è PÉ®¸ÀªÀiÁqÀĪÀªÀgÀÄ, ªÀÄvÀÄÛ zÀQëÃt PÀ£ÀßqÀzÀ°è H½UÀzÀªÀgÁVzÀݪÀgÀÄ. ¥ÀÄ®AiÀÄ£ï JA§ ¥ÀzÀ ªÀļÀAiÀiÁ¼ÀA£À°è ºÁUÀÆ ¥ÀgÉÊAiÀÄ£ï JA§ ¥ÀzÀ vÀ«Ä½£À°è EzÉà CxÀð ¤ÃqÀÄvÀÛªÉ. ¨ÁæºÀätgÀÄ F ¥ÀzÀ ºÉÆ¯É CAzÀgÉ ºÉÆ®¸ÀÄì JA§ ¥ÀzÀ¢AzÀ §A¢zÉ J£ÀÄßvÁÛgÉ. ¨ÉgÉAiÀĪÀgÀÄ F ¥ÀzÀ ºÉÆ® CAzÀgÉ £É® CxÀªÁ ¨sÀÆ«Ä JA§ ¥ÀzÀ¢AzÀ §A¢zÉ J£ÀÄßvÁÛgÉ. ¥ÀgÉÊAiÀÄ£À «µÀAiÀÄzÀ°è EgÀĪÀAvÉ PÉ®ªÀÅ DZÀgÀuÉUÀ½ªÉ, CªÀÅ ºÉƯÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄ MAzÀÄ PÁ®zÀ°è F ¨sÀÆ«ÄAiÀÄ (£Ár£À) zÉÆgÉAiÀiÁVzÀÝ. ¥ÀzÀzÀ ªÀÅåvÀàwÛ K£ÁzÀgÀÆ DVgÀ° ¤±ÀåÀA±ÀAiÀĪÁV ºÉƯÉAiÀÄ ¥ÀzÀzÀ CxÀð ºÁUÀÆ ¥ÀgÉÊAiÀÄ£ï ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ¥ÀÄ®AiÀÄ£ï JA§ ¥ÀzÀUÀ½UÉ ¸ÀªÀÄ£ÁxÀðPÀªÁVzÉ. ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀ°è ºÀ®ªÀÅ M¼À-¥ÀAUÀqÀUÀ½ªÉ, CªÀÅUÀ¼À°è ªÀÄÄRåªÁzÀªÀÅUÀ¼ÉAzÀgÉ; ªÀiÁj, ªÉÄgÀ, ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ªÀÄÄAqÁ¼À CxÀªÁ §PÀÄqÀ...”

2) Holeya Back bone of cultivation in the country: ºÉƯÉAiÀÄ F zÉñÀzÀ°è ªÀéªÀ¸ÁAiÀÄzÀ ¨É£É߮ħÄ.

          “Of the Holeyas of the Mysore province, the following account is given in the Mysore Census Reports, 1891 and 1901. “The Holeyas number 502,493 persons, being 10.53 per cent of the total population. They constitute, as their name implies, the back-bone of cultivation in the country. Hola is the Kanarese name for a dry-crop field, and Holeya means the man of such field.”

           1891 ªÀÄvÀÄÛ 1901 gÀ ªÉÄʸÀÆgÀÄ d£ÀUÀtw ªÀgÀ¢AiÀÄ°è ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀ §UÉÎ F PɼÀPÀAqÀ «ªÀgÀUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¤ÃqÀ¯ÁVzÉ; “ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀ ¸ÀASÉå 502,493 d£ÀgÀÄ. CzÀÄ MlÄÖ d£À¸ÀASÉåAiÀÄ ±ÉÃPÀqÁ 10.53gÀµÀÄÖ EzÁÝgÉ. CªÀgÀÄ vÀªÀÄä ºÉ¸ÀjUÉ vÀPÀÌAvÉ F zÉñÀzÀ ªÀåªÀ¸ÁAiÀÄzÀ ¨É£É߮ĨÁVzÁÝgÉ. PÀ£ÀßqÀzÀ°è ºÉÆ® JAzÀgÉ Mt¨sÀÆ«Ä JAzÀÄ CxÀð. ºÉƯÉAiÀÄ JAzÀgÉ D ¨sÀÆ«ÄAiÀÄ MqÉAiÀÄ JAzÀÄ CxÀð.

3) Tirukula ~ wgÀÄPÀÄ®

          “It may not be amiss to quote here some interesting facts denoting the measure of material well-being achieved by, and the religious recognition accorded to the outcastes at certain first-class shrines in Mysore. At Melkote in the Mysore district, the outcastes, i.e., the Holeyas and Madigas are said to have been granted by the great Visishtadvaita reformer, Ramanujacharya, the privilege of entering the Vishnu temple up to the sanctum sanctorum, along with Brahmans and others, to perform worship there for three days during the annual car procession. The following anecdote, recorded by Buchanan, supplies the raison d’etre for the concession, which is said to have also been earned by their forebears having guarded the sacred murti or idol. On Ramanujacharya going to Melkota to perform his devotions at that celebrated shrine, he was informed that the place had been attacked by the Turk King of Delhi, who had carried away the idol. The Brahman immediately set out for that capital, and on arrival found that the King had made a present of the image to his daughter, for it is said to be very hand-some and she asked for it as a plaything. All day the princess played with the image, and at night the god assumed his own beautiful form, and enjoyed her bed, for Krishna is addicted to such forms of adventures. Ramanujacharya, by virtue of certain mantras, obtained possession of the image, and wished to carry it off. He asked the Brahmans to assist him, but they refused; on which the Holeyas volunteered, provided the right of entering the temple was granted to them. Ramanujacarya accepted their proposal, and the Holeyas, having posted themselves between Delhi and Melkote, the image of the god was carried down in twenty-four hours. The service also won for the outcastes the envied title of   Tiru-kulam or the sacred race. In 1799, however, when the Dewan (Prime minister) Purnaiya vistited the holy place, the right of the outcastes to enter the temple was stopped at the dhvaja stambham, the consecrated monolithic column, from which point alone can they now obtain a view of the god. On the day of the car procession, the Tiru-kulam people men, women and children, shave their heads and bathe with the higher castes in the kalyani or large reservoir, and carry on their head smallearthen vessels filled with rice and oil, and enter the temple as far as the flagstaff referred to above, where they deliver their offerings, which are appropriated by the Dasayyas, who resort simultaneously as pilgrims to the shrine. Besides the privilege of entering the temple, the Tiru-kula holeyas and Madigs have the right to drag the car, for which service they are requited by getting from the temple two hundred seers of ragi (grain), a quantity of jaggery (crude sugar), and few bits of the dyed cloth used for decorating the pandal (shed) which is erected for the procession. At the close of the procession, the representatives of the aforesaid classes receive each a flower garland at the hands of the Sthanik or chief worshipper, who manages to drop a garland synchronously into each plate held by the recipients, so as to avoid any suspicion of undue preference. In return for these privileges, the members of the Tiru-kulam used to render gratuitous services such as sweeping the streets round the temple daily, and in the night patrolling the whole place with drums during the continuance of the annual procession, etc. But these services are said to have become much abridged and nearly obsolete under the recent police and municipal regime. The privilege of entering the temple during the annual car procession is enjoyed also by the outcastes in the Vishnu temple at Belur in the Hassan district. It is, however, significant that in both the shrines, as soon as the car festival is over, i.e., on the 10^th day, the concession ceases and the temples are ceremonially purified.”

      ¸ÀĪÉÄÃjAiÀÄ£ï ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ°è ‘wgÀÄ’ JAzÀgÉ gÁd£À D¸ÁÜ£ÀzÀªÀ, gÁd£À CgÀªÀÄ£ÉUÉ ¸ÀA§A¢ü¹zÀÄÝ JAzÀÄ CxÀð. ¸ÀĪÉÄÃjAiÀÄ£ï ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ°è ‘PÀÄ®’ JAzÀgÉ UÀÄA¥ÀÄ, ¸ÀAWÀ JAzÀÄ CxÀð. E°è wgÀÄPÀÄ® JAzÀgÉ gÁd£À D¸ÁÜ£ÀzÀ PÀÄ® CxÀªÁ gÁd£À UÀÄA¥ÀÄ CxÀªÁ gÁd£À eÁw CxÀªÁ gÁd PÀÄ® JAzÀÄ CxÀð. ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀÄ gÁªÀiÁ£ÀÄeÁZÁAiÀÄðgÀÄ CªÀgÀ£ÀÄß wgÀÄPÀÄ®zÀªÀgÉAzÀÄ ºÉüÀ®Ä ºÀÄlÄÖªÀ ªÉÆzÀ¯Éà wgÀÄPÀÄ®zÀªÀgÁVzÀÝgÀÄ. CªÀgÀÄ ¸ÁQë¬Ä®èzÀ F ªÀÄÆwðAiÀÄ PÀvÉ ºÀÄnÖzÀ £ÀAvÀgÀ wgÀÄPÀÄ®zÀªÀgÁUÀ¨ÉÃPÁzÀ CªÀ±ÀåPÀvɬĮè.  EwºÁ¸ÀzÀ ¥ÁæªÀÄÄRåvÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß CjAiÀÄzÉ EwºÁ¸ÀzÀ §UÉÎ ºÉüÀĪÀªÀjAzÀ F §UÉAiÀÄ ¸ÁQëPÀj¸À¯ÁUÀzÀ zÀAvÀPÀvÉUÀ¼ÀÄ ºÀÄnÖPÉƼÀÄîvÀÛªÉ; »AzÉ EzÀÝ d£ÀgÀ §UÉÎ, DZÀgÀuÉUÀ¼À §UÉÎ, «ZÁgÀUÀ¼À §UÉÎ, DqÀ½vÀ ªÀåªÀ¸ÉÜAiÀÄ §UÉÎ, ¨sÁµÉAiÀÄ §UÉÎ ºÁUÀÆ E¤ßvÀgÉ «µÀAiÀÄUÀ¼À §UÉÎ HºÁvÀäPÀ «µÀAiÀÄUÀ¼Éà ¥ÀæªÀÄÄRªÉ¤¹ ¸ÁªÀiÁ£ÀågÀ£ÀÄß ºÁ¢vÀ¦à¸ÀÄvÀÛªÉ. ±ÁAvÀ ªÀÄ£À¹ì£À EwºÁ¸ÀPÁgÀ£ÀÄ F §UÉAiÀÄ HºÉUÀ½AzÀ «ZÀ°vÀ£ÁUÀ¨ÉÃPÁV®è. wgÀĪÀ¼ÀÄîªÀgÀgÀÄ »AzÉ gÁdPÀÄ®zÀªÀgÁVzÀÄÝzÀjAzÀ CªÀgÀ£ÀÄß D jÃw PÀgÉAiÀįÁ¬ÄvÀÄ. wgÀÄ JAzÀgÉ ²æà JA§ÄzÀgÀ E£ÉÆßAzÀÄ gÀÆ¥ÀªÉAzÀÄ vÀÄA¨Á EwÛÃaUÉ ¥ÀArvÀgÀÄUÀ¼ÀÄ w½AiÀįÁgÀA©ü¹gÀ§ºÀÄzÀÄ.

4) ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀÄ ºÀ½îUÀ¼À°è C¢üPÁjUÀ¼ÁV PÉ®¸À ªÀiÁqÀÄwÛzÀÝgÀÄ;

          “In the pre-survey period, the Holeya or Madig Kulvadi, in the maidan or eastern division, was closely identified with the soil that his oath, accompanied by certain formalities and awe-inspiring solemnities, was considered to give the coup de grace to long existing and vexatious boundary disputes. He had a potential voice in the internal economy of the village, and was often the patel (village official).”

           ¸ÀªÉð E¯ÁSÉAiÀÄÄ DgÀA¨sÀªÁUÀĪÀÅzÀQÌAvÀ ªÉÆzÀ®Ä ºÉƯÉAiÀÄ CxÀªÁ ªÀiÁ¢UÀ PÀÄ®ªÁrUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÉÄÊzÁ£À ¥ÀæzÉñÀUÀ¼À°è ºÁUÀÆ ¥ÀƪÀðzÀ «¨sÁUÀUÀ¼À°è d«ÄãÀÄUÀ¼ÉÆA¢UÉ UÀÄgÀw¸À®àqÀÄwÛzÀÝgÀÄ. CªÀgÀÄ PÉ®ªÀÅ ¸ÁAPÉÃwPÀ DZÀgÀuÉUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ªÀiÁr ¥ÀæweÉÕªÀiÁr ºÉýzÀgÉ §ºÀÄPÁ®zÀ d«ÄãÀÄUÀ¼À £ÀqÀÄ«£À dUÀ¼ÀUÀ¼ÀÄ PÉÆ£ÉUÉƼÀÄîwÛzÀݪÀÅ. ºÀ½îUÀ¼À DyðPÀ «µÀAiÀÄUÀ¼À°è DvÀ£À ªÀiÁvÀÄ £ÀqÉAiÀÄÄwÛvÀÄÛ. CªÀgÀÄ §ºÀ¼ÀµÀÄÖ ¸Áj ºÀ½îUÀ¼À ¥ÀmÉ®gÀAvÉ PÁAiÀÄð¤ªÀð»¸ÀÄwÛzÀÝgÀÄ. 

5) ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀÄ C¥ÁgÀ ¥ÀæªÀiÁtzÀ°è d«ÄãÀÄUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ºÉÆA¢zÀÝgÀÄ. C®èzÉ C¥ÁgÀ ¥ÀæªÀiÁtzÀ°è ¸ÀPÁðgÀPÉÌ  vÉjUÉ PÀlÄÖwÛzÀÝgÀÄ.

          “The Mysore system fully permits the Holeyas and Madigs to hold land in their own right, and as sub-tenants they are to be found almost everywhere. The highest amount of land assessment paid by a single Holeya is Rs.279 in the Bangalore district, and the lowest six pies in the Kolar and Mysore districts. The quota paid by the outcastes towards the land revenue of the country aggregates no less than three lakhs of rupees; more than two-thirds were being paid by the Holeyas, and the remainder by the Madigs. These facts speak of themselves, and afford a reliable index to the comparative well-being of these people. Instances may also be readily quoted, in which individual Holeyas, etc., have risen to be money-lenders, and enjoy comparative affluence.”

           ªÉÄʸÀÆj£À DqÀ½vÀ ªÀåªÀ¸ÉÛAiÀÄÄ ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀÄ ºÁUÀÆ ªÀiÁ¢UÀgÀÄ d«ÄãÀÄzÁgÀgÁVgÀĪÀÅzÀ£ÀÄß ¸ÀA¥ÀÆtðªÁV C£ÀĪÉÆâ¸ÀÄvÀÛzÉ, CªÀgÀÄ d«Ää£À ªÀiÁ°ÃPÀgÁVgÀzÀ PÀqÉ G¥À¨sÉÆÃV (d«Ää£À UÀÄwÛUÉzÁgÀ) AiÀiÁV J®è PÀqÉ PÀAqÀħgÀÄvÁÛgÉ. CwºÉaÑ£À ºÉÆ®zÀ PÀAzÁAiÀĪÀ£ÀÄß M§â£Éà ºÉÆ®AiÀÄ£ÀÄ gÀÆ. 279 UÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¨ÉAUÀ¼ÀÆgÀÄ f¯ÉèAiÀÄ°è ¤ÃrgÀÄvÁÛ£É. CwPÀrªÉÄ PÀAzÁAiÀĪÀ£ÀÄß PÉÆïÁgÀ ºÁUÀÆ ªÉÄʸÀÆj£À PÉ®ªÀÅ ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀÄ, DgÀÄ ¥ÉʸÁ ¤ÃrgÀÄvÁÛgÉ. ªÉÄʸÀÆgÀÄ ¸ÀA¸ÁÜ£ÀzÀ MlÄÖ PÀAzÁAiÀÄzÀ°è ªÀÄÆgÀÄ ®PÀë gÀÆ¥Á¬ÄAiÀÄÄ PÉêÀ® ºÉƯÉAiÀÄ-ªÀiÁ¢UÀjAzÀ §gÀÄvÀÛzÉ. CzÀgÀ°è ªÀÄÄPÁÌ®Ä ¨sÁUÀQÌAvÀ eÁ¹Û ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀÄ ¤ÃqÀÄvÁÛgÉ ¨ÁQAiÀÄ£ÀÄß ªÀiÁ¢UÀgÀÄ PÉÆqÀÄvÁÛgÉ. F ¯ÉPÁÌA±ÀUÀ¼ÀÄ F d£ÀgÀ ¹Üw-UÀwUÀ¼À ºÁUÀÆ CªÀgÀ ¹jvÀ£ÀzÀ §UÉÎ vÀªÀÄäµÀÖPÉÌ vÁªÉà ºÉüÀÄvÀÛªÉ. £Á«°è PÉ®ªÀÅ ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀ §UÉÎ GzÁºÀgÀuÉUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¸ÀÄ®¨sÀªÁV ºÉüÀ§ºÀÄzÀÄ, D ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀÄ ¸Á®¤ÃqÀĪÀ ¸ÁºÀÄPÁgÀgÁV ¨É¼É¢zÁÝgÉ ºÁUÀÆ ¸ÀªÀiÁdzÀ°è vÀÄA¨Á ¥Àæ¨sÁªÀ±Á°UÀ¼ÁVzÁÝgÉ.

6) Kulawadi ~ PÀļÀªÁr- EªÀgÀÄ »A¢£À ºÉÆ®AiÀÄgÀ (gÁdgÀ) ¸ÀĪÀtðPÁ®zÀ°è ºÀ½îUÀ¼À gÁdå ¨sÁgÀ ªÀiÁqÀÄwÛzÀÝ CxÀªÁ DqÀ½vÀ £ÀqɸÀÄwÛzÀݪÀgÁVzÀÝgÀÄ ºÁUÁV CªÀgÀÄ vÀªÀÄä ºÀ½îUÀ¼À ªÉÄÃgÉUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ºÁUÀÆ gÉÊvÀgÀ ºÉÆ®UÀ¼À §zÀĪÀÅUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ZÉ£ÁßV UÀÄgÀÄw¸À§®ègÀÄ. F §UÉÎ xÀgÀìl£ï CªÀgÀ ªÀiÁvÀÄUÀ¼ÀÄ F PɼÀV£ÀAwªÉ.

           “In a note on the Kulwadis, Kulvadis or Chalavadis of the Hassan district in Mysore, Captain J.S.F. Mackenzie writes, all the thousand-and- one castes, whose members find a home in the village, unhesitatingly admit that the Kulwadi is de jure the rightful owner of the village. He who was is still, in a limited sense, ‘lord of the village manor.’ If there is a dispute as to the village boundaries, the Kulwadi is the only one competent to take the oath as to how the boundary ought to run. The old custom for setting such disputes was as follows. The Kulwadi, carrying on his head a ball made of the village earth, in the centre of which is placed some water, passes along the boundary. If he has kept the proper line, everything goes well; but should he, by accident, even go beyond his own proper boundary, then the ball of earth, of its own accord, goes to pieces, the Kulwadi dies within fifteen days, and his house becomes a ruin. Such is the popular belief. Again, the skins of all animals dying within the village boundaries are the property of the Kulwadi, and a good income he makes from this source. To this day village boundary dispute is often decided by this one fact. If The Kulawadis agree, the other inhabitants of the villagers can say no more. When-in our forefathers’ days, as the natives say-a village was first established, as stone called ‘karu kallu’ is set up. To this stone the Patel once a year makes an offering. The Kulwadi, after the ceremony is over, is entitled to carry off the rice, etc., offered. In cases where there is no Patel, the Kulwadi goes through the yearly ceremony. But  what I think proves strongly that the Holia was the first to take possession of the soil is that the Kulwadi receives, and is entitled to receive, from the friends of any person who dies in the village, a certain fee or as my informant forcibly put it, ‘they buy from him the ground for the dead.’ This fee is still called in Canarese nela haga, from nela earth, and haga, a coin worth 1 anna 2 pies. In Munzerabad the Kulwadi does not receive this fee from those ryots who are related to the headman. Here the Kulwadi occupies a higher position. He has, in fact, been adopted into the Patel’s family, for, on a death occurring in such family, the Kulwadi goes into mourning by shaving his head. He always receives from the friends the clothes the deceased wore, and a brass basin. The Kulwadi, however, owns a superior in the matter of burial fees. He pays yearly a fowl, one hana (4annas 8 pies), and a handful of rice to the agent of the Sudgadu Sidha, or lord of the burning ground.”

ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀÄ D ºÀ½îUÀ¼À£ÀÄß vÁªÀÅ PÀnÖ ¨É¼É¹ CªÀ£ÀÄß D¼ÀÄwÛzÀÄÝzÀjAzÀ CªÀjUÉ CªÀgÀ ºÀ½îUÀ¼À ªÉÄÃgÉUÀ¼ÀÄ agÀ¥ÀjavÀªÁVgÀÄwÛzÀݪÀÅ. CªÀgÀ£ÀÄß CªÀgÀ D C¢üPÁgÀ¢AzÀ vÉUÉzÀÄ ºÁQzÀ ªÉÄÃ®Æ ºÀ½îUÀ¼À £ÀqÀÄªÉ ªÉÄÃgÉUÀ¼À UÀÄgÀÄw¸À®Ä ºÁUÀÄ gÉÊvÀgÀ ºÉÆ®UÀ¼À £ÀqÀÄªÉ UÀr UÀÄgÀÄw¸À®Ä ºÉÆ®AiÀÄ ¨ÉÃPÉ ¨ÉÃPÀÄ. ¸ÀvÁÛUÀ¯ÁzÀgÀÆ vÀªÀÄUÉ £ÁåAiÀÄAiÀÄÄvÀªÁV ¸À®è¨ÉÃPÁzÀ £É®zÀ°è ºÉtªÁV ªÀÄ®UÀ¨ÉÃPÉA§ KPÉÊPÀ PÁgÀt¢AzÀ ¸ÀÄqÀÄUÁrUÉAzÀÄ CxÀªÁ ºÉtzÀ ªÀiÁ¼ÀPÉÌAzÀÄ ºÉÆ®AiÀĤUÉ £É®zÀ ºÁUÀ (£É®zÀ¨ÁrUÉ) ¤ÃqÀÄvÁÛgÉ. DvÀ¤AzÀ QvÀÄÛPÉÆAqÀ AiÀiÁªÀÅzÉà d«ÄäUÀÆ ºÁUÀ ¤ÃqÀzÀªÀgÀ ¥Á¥À¥ÀæeÉÕ E°è eÁUÀÈvÀªÁUÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

7) Holodia Gudiya:-  “A name for the agricultural section of the Oriya Gudiyas.” Nr¸ÁìzÀ°è EgÀĪÀ d«ÄãÀÄUÀ¼À£ÀÄß¼Àî ªÀåªÀ¸ÁAiÀÄUÁgÀ eÁwUÉ ºÉƯÉÆ¢AiÀÄ UÀÄ¢AiÀÄ J£ÀÄßvÁÛgÉ.

8) Holuva (holo, plough):- “A synonym of Pentiya, and the name of a section of Oriya Brahmans, who plough the land.”

Nr¸ÁìzÀ°è ºÉÆ® H¼ÀĪÀ eÁwAiÀĪÀgÀÄ CAzÀgÉ MAzÀÄ §UÉAiÀÄ ºÉÆ®AiÀÄgÀÄ vÀªÀÄä£ÀÄß vÁªÀÅ ¨ÁæºÀätgÀÄ JAzÀÄ PÀgÉzÀÄPÉƼÀÄîvÁÛgÉ. CªÀgÀ£ÀÄß ºÉƮĪÀgÉAzÀÄ C°è PÀgÉAiÀÄÄvÁÛgÉ.

9) Gatti:- “A Small caste of cultivators, found chiefly near Kumbla and Someswara in the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara. Other names for the caste are Poladava and Holadava, both signifying men of the field. Like the Bants, they follow the aliya Santana law of inheritance (in the female line), have exogamous septs or balis, and, on the day of the final death ceremonies, construct car-like structures, if the deceased was an important personage in the community. The Bants and Gatis interdine, but do not intermarry. The   headman of the Gattis is called Gurikara. The God of the Someswara temple is regarded as the caste deity, and every family has to pay an annual fee of four annas to this temple. Failure to do so would entail excommunication.”

F UÀwÛ eÁwAiÀĪÀjUÉ ¥ÉÆ®zÀªÀ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ºÉÆ®zÀªÀ JAzÀÄ PÀÆqÀ PÀgÉAiÀÄÄvÁÛgÉ. CªÀgÀ zsÁ«ÄðPÀ DZÀgÀuÉUÀ¼ÀÄ §AlgÀ DZÀgÀuÉUÀ¼ÀAwªÉ.

10) Holeya Kings:-

          “All Tulu Brahmin chronicles,” Mr. H.A. Stuart writes “agree in ascribing the creation of Malabar and Canara, or Kerala, Tuluva, and Haiga to Parasu Rama, who reclaimed from the sea as much land as he could cover by hurling his battle-axe from the top of the Western Ghats. A modified form of the tradition states that Parasu Rama gave the newly  reclaimed land to Naga and Machi Brahmins, who were not true Brahmins, and were turned out or destroyed by fishermen and Holeyas, who held the country till the Tulu Brahmins were introduced by Mayur Varma (of the Kadamba dynasty). All traditions unite in attributing the introduction of the Tulu Brahmins of the present day to Mayur Varma, but they vary in details connected with the manner in which they obtained a firm footing in the land. One account says that Habashika, chief of the Koragas, drove out Mayur Varma, but was in turn expelled by Mayur Varma’s son, or son-in-law, Lokaditya of Gokarnam, who brought Brahmins form Ahi-Kshetra, and settled them in thirty-two villages. Another makes Mayur Varma himself the invader of the country, which till then had remained in the possession of the Holeya Kings and fishermen who had turned out Parasu Rama’s Brahmins. Mayur Varma and the Brahmins whom he had brought from Ahi-Kshetra were again driven out by Nanda, a Holeya chief, whose son Chandra Sayana had, however, learned respect for Brahmins from his mother, who had been a dancing-girl in a temple. His admiration for them became so great that he not only brought back the Brahmins, but actually made over all his authority to them, and reduced his people to the position of slaves.”

ºÉƯÉAiÀÄgÀÄ gÁdgÁVzÀÝgÀÄ JA§ÄzÀPÉÌ EzÀ®èzÉ ¨ÉÃgÉ ¸ÁQëUÀ¼À£ÀÄß £Á£ÀÄ F ¥ÀĸÀÛPÀzÀ°è E¤ßvÀgÉ ¥ÀÄlUÀ¼À°è §gÉ¢gÀĪÀÅzÀ£ÀÄß UÀªÀĤ¹j. ZÁ®ÄPÀågÀ §UÉÎ «ªÀgÀªÁV §gÉ¢gÀĪÀÅzÀ£ÀÄß N¢j.

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